что различия в числе копий генов Х-хромосомы, наряду с экспрессией специфичных для мужчин генов Y-хромосомы, могут оказывать характерное для данного пола влияние на ткани, включая развитие и функционирование мозга в критические периоды. Эти работы в целом подтверждают данную гипотезу: Daniel M. Snell and James M. A. Turner, "Sex Chromosome Effects on Male–Female Differences in Mammals," Current Biology 28, no. 22 (2018): R1313–R24; Arthur P. Arnold, "Sexual Differentiation of Brain and Other Tissues: Five Questions for the Next 50 Years," Hormones and Behavior 120 (2020): 104691.
Об экспрессии генов Y-хромосомы в нерепродуктивных тканях см.: Alexander K. Godfrey, Sahin Naqvi, Lukáš Chmátal, Joel M. Chick, Richard N. Mitchell, Steven P. Gygi, Helen Skaletsky, and David C. Page, "Quantitative Analysis of Y-Chromosome Gene Expression Across 36 Human Tissues,"Genome Research 30, no. 6 (2020): 860–73.
Об экспрессии генов Y-хромосомы в мозге см.: Ivanka Savic, Louise Frisen, Amirhossein Manzouri, Anna Nordenstrom, and Angelica Lindén Hirschberg, "Role of Testosterone and Y Chromosome Genes for the Masculinization of the Human Brain," Human Brain Mapping 38, no. 4 (2017): 1801–14.
О половых различиях в экспрессии генов Х-хромосомы и их роли в половых различиях при инфекционных заболеваниях: Haiko Schurz, Muneeb Salie, Gerard Tromp, Eileen G. Hoal, Craig J. Kinnear, and Marlo Möller, "The X Chromosome and Sex-Specific Effects in Infectious Disease Susceptibility," Human Genomics 13, no. 1 (2019): 1–12.
151
Claire Watson, "Semenya Humiliated: Athletics Chief," Reuters, August 20, 2009, https://af.reuters.com/article/idAFJOE57J0NP20090820.
152
Christopher Clarey and Gina Kolata, "Gold Awarded amid Dispute over Runner's Sex," The New York Times, August 20, 2009.
153
Karolos Grahmann, "Savinova Stripped of London Games 800m Gold for Doping," Reuters, February 10, 2017.
154
William Lee Adams, "Could This Women's World Champ Be a Man?," Time, August 21, 2009.
155
"Makeover for SA Gender-Row Runner," BBC News, September 8, 2009, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8243553.stm; and Tracy Clark-Flory, "Sex Test Runner Gets a Girly Makeover," Salon, September 8, 2009, https://www.salon.com/2009/09/08/runner_makeover/.
156
"Caster Semenya: Anatomy of Her Case," Telegraph (UK), July 6, 2010.
157
Rick Maese, "Court Rules Olympic Runner Caster Semenya Must Use Hormone-Suppressing Drugs to Compete," The Washington Post, May 1, 2019.
158
Нет никаких доказательств того, что правила подразумевали, в частности, Семеню. В то время ИААФ рассматривала дела других подобных интерсекс-спортсменов.
159
"IAAF Response to Swiss Federal Tribunal's Decision," World Athletics, Monaco, press release, July 31, 2019, https://www.worldathletics.org/news/press-release/swiss-federal-tribunal-decision.
160
Jacob Bogage, "Caster Semenya Blocked from Defending 800 Title at Worlds After Swiss Court Reverses Ruling," The Washington Post, July 30, 2019.
161
David J. Handelsman, Angelica L. Hirschberg, and Stephane Bermon, "Circulating Testosterone as the Hormonal Basis of Sex Differences in Athletic Performance," Endocrine Reviews 39, no. 5 (2018): 803–29.
162
"'But Seriously,' Tennis Great John McEnroe Says He's Seeking 'Inner Peace,'" Weekend Edition Sunday, National Public Radio, June 25, 2017, https://www.npr.org/2017/06/25/534149646/but-seriously-tennis-great-john-mcenroe-says-hes-seeking-inner-peace.
163
Evan Hilbert, "Serena Williams on Playing Andy Murray: 'I'd Lose 6–0, 6–0,'" CBS Sports, August 23, 2013.
164
David J. Handelsman, "Sex Differences in Athletic Performance Emerge Coinciding with the Onset of Male Puberty," Clinical Endocrinology 87, no. 1 (2017): 68–72.
165
Исчерпывающее описание развития половых различий в метательных видах спорта и в спортивных способностях в целом см. в: David J. Epstein, The Sports Gene: Inside the Science of Extraordinary Athletic Performance (New York: Current, 2014), 56–74.
166
Jerry Thomas quoted in Tamar Haspel, "Throw Like a Girl? With Some Practice, You Can Do Better," The Washington Post, September 10, 2012.
167
Øyvind Sandbakk, Guro Strøm Solli, and Hans-Christer Holmberg, "Sex Differences in World-Record Performance: The Influence of Sport Discipline and Competition Duration," International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 13, no. 1 (2018): 2–8; Beat Knechtle et al., "Women Outperform Men in Ultra-Distance Swimming: The Manhattan Island Marathon Swim from 1983 to 2013," International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 9, no. 6 (2014): 913–24.
168
Sandbakk, Solli, and Holmberg, "Sex Differences in World-Record Performance."
169
"Season Top Lists: 100 Meters Men, 100 Meters Women," World Athletics (2019), accessed August 15, 2020, https://www.worldathletics.org/records/toplists/sprints/100-metres/outdoor/men/senior/2019?regionType=world&timing=electronic&windReading=regular&page=23&bestResultsOnly=true. В 2019 г. около 8100 мужчин и 5470 женщин (в общей возрастной категории и в категории до 20 лет) приняли участие в забеге на 100 м на чемпионате мира по легкой атлетике. Рекордсменкой среди женщин стала Шелли-Энн Фрейзер-Прайс из Ямайки, которая показала время 10,71 с, а чемпионом среди мужчин – Кристиан Коулман со временем 9,76 с. Около 2100 мужчин из общей возрастной категории и 500 мужчин до 20 лет пробежали дистанцию быстрее 10,71 с, опередив Фрейзер-Прайс.
170
Fred Dreier, "Q&A: Dr. Rachel McKinnon, Masters Track Champion and Transgender Athlete," VeloNews, October 15, 2018, https://www.velonews.com/news/qa-dr-rachel-mckinnon-masters-track-champion-and-transgender-athlete/.
171
Millard-Stafford et al., "Nature Versus Nurture," International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 13, no. 4 (2018): 530–535. О половых различиях в результатах олимпийских игр: Thibault et al., "Women and Men in Sports Performance," 214.
172
Mindy Millard-Stafford, Ann E. Swanson, and Matthew T. Wittbrodt, "Nature Versus Nurture: Have Performance Gaps Between Men and Women Reached an Asymptote?," International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 13, no. 4 (2018): 530–35; Valérie Thibault, Marion Guillaume, Geoffroy Berthelot et al., "Women and Men in Sport Performance: The Gender Gap Has Not Evolved Since 1983," Journal of Sports Science and Medicine 9, no. 2 (2010): 214–23. Довод, что мы не сможем узнать пределов спортивных достижений женщин до тех пор, пока женщины и мужчины не будут иметь равные возможности и вознаграждения в спорте, см. в: Laura Capranica, Maria F. Piacentini, Shona Halson et al., "The Gender Gap in Sport Performance: Equity Influences Equality," International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 8, no. 1 (2013): 99–103.
173
Слова Бет Джонс цитируются по статье: Sean Ingle, "Why Calls for Athletes to Compete as a Homogenised Group Should Be Resisted," The Guardian, December 10, 2017.
174
Rebecca M. Jordan-Young and Katrina Karkazis, "Five Myths About Testosterone," The Washington Post, October 25, 2019.
175
Jordan-Young and Karkazis, "Five Myths About Testosterone."
176
Anthony C. Hackney and Amy R. Lane, "Low Testosterone in Male Endurance-Trained Distance Runners: Impact of Years in Training," Hormones 17, no. 1 (2018): 137–39; Javier Alves, Víctor Toro, Gema Barrientos et al., "Hormonal Changes in High-Level Aerobic Male Athletes During a Sports Season," International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 16 (2020): 5833. Результаты, которые показывают более стабильную положительную взаимосвязь между уровнями Т и достижениями в большинстве легкоатлетических соревнований у женщин, см. в: S. Bermon and P. Y. Garnier, "Serum Androgen Levels and Their Relation to Performance in Track and Field: Mass Spectrometry Results from 2127 Observations in Male and Female Elite Athletes," British Journal of Sports Medicine 51, no. 17 (2017):
